What is the Nature of External Reality?

What is the Nature of External Reality?Worldview is the flair a psyche views the sphere. Worldview is non just a story or a presumption of life. It is a realism. Worldview is non an assertion of the knowledge base. It is a simple, introductory belief of life. It is a framework of beliefs through which a somebody views the moment of life. A universeview is the flair our hearts cereb identify, and non just a affair in our mind. A worldview is an assumption of life that could be true or false. It is a foundation that we count and stand in.thither atomic number 18 dickens basic worldviews. iodin is ground on god, and adept is not based on graven look-alike. A worldview is an production line or a way of slam why things be the way they are in the world we live in. A person needs to develop his own worldview and believe in what is truth. For a Christian, truth is the Word of graven image.The first question in this defy is What is prime universe-the re complet elyy real? In Christian Theism, reality is god revealed in the Holy Scriptures. He is the prime reality and is the source of all separate reality. He is infinite. He is personal. He is transc windupent. He is omniscient. He is sovereign. He is good. In Deism, graven image created the world and left it to entiree on its own. It believes that God does not inter dress with bothone on earth and denies the true nature of God. In Naturalism, prime reality is pay dark which is endures forever and is all that exists. It does not believe that God exists. It proposes that the earthly concern is the primary reality and pushes God out of the picture. It believes that librate has forever and a day existed except probably not in it accepted state. It is unless one thing without any Creator or Divine Being. In Nihilism, nothing exists. There is no God and we are nothing. The beness has no meaning. Existentialism, it believes the same at Naturalism. According to Eastern religions, God is in everything, and the cosmos is God. Reality is beyond distinction. They believe that the soul of everyone is actually combined to be the soul of the cosmos, which is the ultimate reality. If something exists that is not God, it is called an illusion. Everything should be combined or coupled to be The whiz. Anything that does not combine to be The One is not reality. The One is the ultimate reality. They similarly believe that in that respect are some roadstead to The One and that chants can help you obtain ultimate reality. According to the impudently Age worldview, the soul or the inner being of a person is the prime reality. In separate words, self is the reality. Self is important because it is the focus on of the universe. It is in control of reality. There are common chord versions which are mentioned. The cryptic version deals with magic, witchcraft, and similar ungodly acts. The psychedelic deals with reality under some other influence to create another reali ty than the one perceived. The conceptual relativist deals with the gulf between what is objective reality and perceived reality. The symbols that society uses do not match what reality is. In Postmodernism, thinking is reality. It is interested in how a person knows rather than what a person knows. It believes that if something is not at that place, then it cannot be known. It is based on thinking too a lot. In Islamic Theism, it believes that Allah is God and He is reality. Some people think that maybe the Quran should be included in fundamental reality.The second question is What is the nature of outer reality, that is, the world around us? In Christian Theism, external reality is the world that God created. He created all the rules that govern the world. God does upshot prayers in relation to His world. In Deism, external reality is the cosmos God created because He created it as a uniformity of cause. It is a closed system, and no miracles are practical. In Naturalism, the universe is composed fixly of matter but to human beings, external reality appears in twain forms as ingrained and objective. In Nihilism, nothing exists. The world is a closed system, and it lone(prenominal) acts at heart itself. In Existentialism, reality is subjective and objective. In Eastern religions, Atman is Brahman that is the sole of for each(prenominal)(prenominal) one human being and is the soul of the cosmos. It is external reality. Some things are much One than another. many roads lead to the One. Reality is beyond personality. In New Age religions, external reality is manifested in two dimensions. The visible universe is accessible through ordinary consciousness, and the invisible universe is accessed through altered states of consciousness. There are three distinct attitudes toward sensual question of nature. The occult perceives things in states. The psychedelic perceives things which are projections of conscious self. abstract relativity perceives t hings in which the cosmic consciousness is the consciousness of self. In Postmodernism, matter exists, but God does not exist. In Islamic Theism, external reality is God created the universe, and all its creatures are responsible to Him.The third question is What is a human being? In Christian Theism, humans are created in the image of God. They get under ones skin intelligence, self-transcendence, morality, and creativity. Human beings were created good but through the Fall, Gods image was changed in us. In Deism, human beings are a part of the age of the universe. In Naturalism, humans are complex organisms where personalities are an interrelation of chemicals. In Nihilism, humans do not rattling exist and are basically dead. Their lives are already determined for them so they do not really matter, and they are not responsible for anything. In Existentialism, human beings have to get it on into full awareness of who they are, and people make themselves who they are. Each pers on is solely free to determine his destiny. In Eastern religions, the human race is on the edge of extreme change of human nature. They are prototypes of the new age. In New Age, a human is God or Kosmos. They grow in awareness and are transformed. In Postmodernism, humans make themselves who they are by learning things approximately themselves. In Islamic Theism, humans are the light up of Gods creation. Their high standing in creation means that they have the al just about responsibility to live up to Gods standards.The quadth question is What happens to a person at closing? In Christian Theism, a person go away enter the gate to life with God in heaven or the gate to separation from God in hell. In Deism, humans may not have life after his life on earth. In Naturalism, death means the end of a persons personality and individuality. In Nihilism, death is an absurdity. In Existentialism, it believes the same as Naturalism. There is nothing special near it because we are n othing special from other objects. In Eastern religions, a person does die, but death changes nothing that is important. It believes in reincarnation. The soul or the essence of a person is eternal. In New Age religions, on that point is no fear of death because physical death is not the end of a person. In Postmodernism, since there is no God, then death is however language. Death is not mentioned. In Islamic Theism, a person pull up stakes either go to paradise or hell.The fifth question is wherefore is it possible to know anything at all? In Christian Theism, God gave us the ability to learn about the world and about Him. In Deism, it says that we have the ability in us to learn about the world and about God. In Naturalism, it believes the same as Deism. In Nihilism, nothing exists. In Existentialism, it believes a person moldiness make the value in what it observes. In Naturalism, people learn things when they come into full consciousness. In Eastern religions, the wholly t hing that is valuable is what is Oneness. In New Age religions, things appear or disappear when a person comes into full consciousness. In Postmodernism, reality is surreptitious from people. In Islamic Theism, it believes that Allah has hapn people the ability to learn things about their world.The sixth question is How do we know what is right or price? In Christian Theism, In Deism, In Naturalism, In Nihilism, In Existentialism, In Naturalism, In Eastern religions, In New Age religions, In Postmodernism, In Islamic Theism,The seventh question is What is the meaning of human history? In Christian Theism, In Deism, In Naturalism, In Nihilism, In Existentialism, In Naturalism, In Eastern religions, In New Age religions, In Postmodernism, In Islamic Theism,Microeconomics Indifference Curve, Oligopoly Game openingMicroeconomics Indifference Curve, Oligopoly Game Theory aditMicroeconomics aims to cover every aspects of our economic life. This report provide discuss, evaluate and mensurate the usefulness and limitations of microeconomic theories in reaching that aim. Microeconomics is The study of choices that individuals make and the way these choices depart interact in given markets (Parkin et al. 2012, p.2) or put more(prenominal) simply, microeconomics is the allocation of scarce resources. There are a number of objectives of microeconomics, the initiatory being Equity, Efficiency, Growth and Stability. This report leave examine the commonly employ theories of Indifference outline, Game Theory and the market structure of Oligopoly analysing the benefits and drawbacks and how they are employ in the real world.Indifference Curve AnalysisTo answer questions about individual decision making indifference prune analysis is utilise. before looking at this mildew it is necessary to absorb that the individual satisfies the four axioms of rational discernment formulated by Savage (1954). These are completeness, more is break away, transitivity and c onvexity. Sugden (1991 p.761) describes these as Preferences over acts, where acts are made up of consequences.A rational consumer allow for of course spend their money on the incorporate of products that give them most pleasure (Read 2007, p.45). and this will vary for each consumer, because each consumer will have different adjourns. The consumer is constrained financially by their exogenous income to only be able to purchase bundles of goods X and Y on or below their cypher line. This line does not always have to be straight, and in everyday natural coverings it often is not. This is true with sodding(a) compliments much(prenominal) as right and left shoes, the budget restraint will be stepped because a consumer will not gain much util (benefit) from having significantly more right shoes than left. An indifference frizzle is a graph showing a combination of two different goods that give the consumer exist satisfaction. There are four main properties of an indifference curve it is ubiquitous, downward sloping, cannot cross and cannot become less steep. The marginal rate of electrical switch is the rate at which the consumer is willing to exchange one bundle, for another along the indifference curve (this is equal to the value of the slope). Diminishing marginal rate of substitution explains why the line is curved as seen in get wind 1 (Perloff, 2012). The consumer will take any allocation of resources along each indifference curve (I1, I2, I3). Their utility is optimal where the indifference curve meets the budget constraint. It can be observed that I2 is tangent to the budget constraint at point e indeed that is the rational and optimal choice, although I1 does also cover part of the budget constraint (points a and c), the offset of goods will be less desirable. Therefore that leaves I2 as the rational choice. However indifference curve analysis does not take into account the consumers preference to save sort of of spend. This could cause p oint d to be the most desirable option.An masking of Indifference curve analysis is the use of the Edgeworth box TheEdgeworth boxis a conventional visualization of the benefits potentially obtainable from trade. When both parties have utilised the benefit that they can receive this is called Pareto optimality. If two consumers (A and B) have fixed amounts of two products (X and Y) they essential find a way to trade these goods that benefits both of them without making the other worsened off. This can be solved by using their preference lay outs to construct an Edgeworth box diagram.Figure 2 (Perloff, 2012) shows the indifference curves of the two consumers (Jane and Denise) are tangent at a number of points. If the consumers originally plan on commencing trade at point e this will give Jane 30W and 20C and Denise 20W and 60C, indeed by using IJ2 and ID2 this is more beneficial to both parties due to there being greater overall bundles in addition to a greater combination of pr oducts. This then follows both the convexity and the more is better axioms of consumer preference. A contract curve is drawn through all of the Pareto optimal points of trade, which shows the miscellaneous positions of exchange of products that equalise the marginal rates of substitution of the two exchangers.One particular drawback is that indifference curves usually only focuses on two goods, whereas in real terms it would be very rare that there are only two options of what to spend income on. Although it is possible to create an indifference map that takes into account three goods this is the furthest that the model can progress. There is also no scope for risk, un reliablety, or other factors that could influence a consumers preference map, this is because this form of analysis sticks rigidly to the assumption of Ceteris Paribus. Indifference curve analysis relies upon a consumer behaving rationally, however it is quite possible for a consumer, or anyone, not to behave in a ra tional way. Hume (1740) argued that reason alone was not a motive to act rationally, and that passion and impulse were of more grandness in decision making.Game TheoryPerhaps one of the most discussed theories in microeconomics is that of Game Theory. Perloff, (2012, p.505) defines halting speculation as formally describing games and predicts their solution conditional on the rules of the game, the information that pseudos have, and other factors. There are certain factors that must be present for a game to exist. There must be players, strategies, orders of moves (time) and payoffs or rewards for each outcome. Providing that a player behaves rationally, we can assume they will follow a dominant strategy. This is a strategy that gives the player the outstrip final outcome in comparison to all other potential strategies.The prisoners dilemma is a paradox in decision analysis where two parties end up worse off by pursuing self-interest. Furthermore it shows how if all parties in a game accept a dominant strategy there will be no real winner. Tucker (1952)formalized the game as we know it immediately with prison sentence rewards and named it prisoners dilemma It can be seen in icon 3 (Kane, 2013) The prisoners dilemma is set up so that both parties claim to protect themselves at the expense of the other participant this is achieved by opting to confess. following(a) a logical thought process to help themselves, both participants are consequently worse off than if they had cooperated and trusted each other. Evidently, receiving confessions from both players is the Nash equilibrium (where each player is assumed to know the equilibrium strategies of the other players, and no player has any advantage by changing their own strategy).It is therefore also the Pareto optimal point. This game can be expanded, giving the players 3 or more strategies each. Although this makes the game more difficult it can be solved using the method of iterated elimination of dom inated strategies. This means that when a player notices that a possible strategy is strictly dominated by another strategy (all options of other strategy give a better outcome) then the strategy will not be considered. The prisoners dilemma is summarised well by Matt Ridley,broadly speaking any situation in which you are tempted to do something, but know it would be a great mistake if everybody did the same thing, is likely to be a prisoners dilemma (1996, p.55).A particularly fascinating application of the prisoners dilemma was its use in the cold war. Simplifying look into by Cobb (2012). The two players (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) had to choose whether or not to puddle nuclear weapons. If neither chose to do so, valuable money, time and potentially lives would be saved. All players would be considerably better off if both avoided building nuclear weapons. However if one side built weapons and the other did not then that player would have a huge advantage. Therefore the only ra tional choice is for both sides to build nuclear weaponry. This puts both players on an equal level. However both are now financially worse off than when they started. Although it could be argued that the application of game theory has saved the world from nuclear war. Steiner and Schelling (1960, p.210) studied a similar model and came to the conclusion that world peace would be the most plausible solution.As shown in the exact A Beautiful Mind (2002), the prisoners dilemma and Nash offset challenge Adam metalworkers (1776) marketplace model, which implies that the pursuit of self-interest results in collective benefit. One can observe many governmental disputes as partially flowing from disagreement regarding which model is more let in a particular situation. For slip when a plastered or person is operating in a market with many available players, the option to cheat (confess) will not be taken as it would tarnish a firms reputation. This point is made well by Tullock (1985) and basically implies that if you do not choose to cooperate in the in short term, you may not have anyone to cooperate with in the long term.Game theorists have the assumption that players have perfect knowledge of both their own and opponents payoffs. When applied to the real world in more complicated applications this is often not true. It is often not possible to discover an outcome until the game has been vie. tralatitious game theory does include the factor that humans are adroit and will often change their strategy when a game is played multiple times. It is assumed that players of a game will always apply a dominant strategy, however, this may not occur if players know each other or know that they will later come into signature with each other.OligopolyAn Oligopoly is a common form of market structure with express competition, in which a market is shared by a scurvy number of producers or sellers whereas a duopoly only has two dominant firms. Many of the models used when analysing this market structure focus on duopolies for simplicity reasons. There have been a number of contrasting models for an oligopolistic market, arguably the three most important, and the three that this report will focus on, are the Cournot model, Stackelberg model and Bertrand model.In the Cournot model each firm assumes that rivals will deal producing at their current output levels. Each firm has the assumption that its competitors production levels are fixed, and will not be nubed by their own production levels. This was substantial by Antoine A. Cournot (1838). Each firm has a take up response possible for every situation, this is the reaction function and is shown by (Perloff 2012) in figure 4. The best response curves show which output a firm will pick to maximise profit following its belief of its rivals output, Cournot equilibrium is found where the best response curves intersect. In contrast to this, the Stackelberg model assumes that firms do not root on output simultaneously, instead, there is a price leader and a price fol impose. Henceforth, backwards induction is used to find the equilibrium. Cournots model is a simultaneous game, whereas Stackelbergs is a sequential game. It can be seen from diagram 4 below that in the Cournot model, output for the two firms will be the same, however, output in the Stackelberg model is higher for the leader and lower for the price taker. If the firms are price takers then they will produce where crave equals to marginal cost.Within the Bertrand model each firm assumes that rivals will continue charging their current prices, the model was created by Bertrand (1883) in a review of Cournots model. Bertrands argument is that firms will choose the price to set rather than quantities, and that price should equal marginal cost. One problem with this model is that it assumes that consumers will always demoralise the lowest price product which does not take into account factors such as product differe ntiation, location and the cost to the consumer of obtaining market information.The emergence of cartels is jolly common in oligopolies. This can have a negative effect on the consumer. A cartel is an agreement between competing firms to control prices and output. A cartel will form if the superjacent firms in the pains believe they can formulate higher profits by colluding together. If two firms collude, they could operate as a monopoly, therefore producing less and charging a higher price. quest Stigler (1964) many economists now accept that collusion is not a practicable option in the long term as each firm has the inducing to cheat. This could be achieved by raising either price or quantity. Although cartels are illegal in most countries this has not stopped them forming. investigate from Levenstein and Suslow (2006, p43-95) showed that although cartels are often successful in raising prices in the short term, most break up before five yrs. This is because when there is a n incentive to cheat (and get away with it), most firms will take that opportunity. As shown in the recent failed cartel within the US airline industry involving Qantas (BBC 2007)In disparity to this however, an oligopolistic market does not necessarily mean that the firms will collude. Coca cola and Pepsi have a duopoly of their market, yet they are ferociously competitive and are forced to spend vast amounts each year on advertising. This level of competitiveness drives down prices through price wars, causes firms to enjoin products, and encourages innovation. Ultimately all of this is good news for the consumer.Another interesting prototype of an oligopolistic market is the current UK petrol station industry. Although the price of oil has fall dramatically in the previous year, the firms inside the market are nonvoluntary to drop their prices to match the fall in costs. This is because of price rigidity and collusion, if one firm dropped the price of petrol then all other incu mbent firms would follow the price drop. This would consequently reduce profit for all firms in the industry. This shows how oligopolies can often have a negative effect for consumers. closedownIn conclusion the biggest problem in the application of microeconomics is the principle that consumers will always behave rationally, as previously noted, rationality is hard to define. In addition to this microeconomic theories are based on the static assumption of Ceteris Paribus which means Other things being equal. This assumption is unrealistic, the way we think and act are constantly changing, decisions can vary from day to day in response to to many different factors. Many of the microeconomic models do not go into the complexity needed to completely analyse our everyday behaviour. For example indifference curve analysis is limited to two or three products and some of the theories behind oligopolies can only be used for duopolies. However this does not make these models obsolete by any means.For the aforementioned reasons, there is no doubt that microeconomics can, if applied correctly, cover aspects of our everyday lives and give us a detailed insight into how and why we act as we do. However, this being said, microeconomic theories should only be used as one of many tools to help aid our knowledge of the economic world. The study of Microeconomic theory helps in achieving the correct allocation of resources, commodities and output mix for the maximization of the cordial welfare.APPENDIXFigure 1 Consumer Maximisation (Perloff 2012, p.115)Figure 2 Edgeworth niche and Contract Curve (Perloff 2012, p.349)Figure 3 The Prisoners quandary (Kane 2013.)Figure 4 Duopoly Equilibrium (Perloff 2012, p.487)BibliographyA Beautiful Mind, 2002. Film. A Beautiful Mind (2001). addressable from http//www.imdb.com/title/tt0268978/ Accessed 27 Nov 2014.BBC, 2007. Qantas admits cargo price fixing online. BBC Business. Available from http//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7116073.stm Accessed 29 Nov 2014.Bertrand, J., 1883. Book review of theorie mathematique de la richesse sociale and of recherches sur les principles mathematiques de la theorie des richesses. Journal de Savants, 67, 499508.Cobb, L., 2012. Encylopedia of Mathematics and Society. Hackensack. Salem Press Inc.Cournot, A., 1838. Researches into the mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth.The American Mathematical Monthly, 35 (8).Hume, D., 1740. A Treatise of Human Nature. (Second Edition). Oxford Claredon Press.Kane, T,. 2013. The Prisoners Dilemma table unite States Available from http//balanceofeconomics.com/2013/01/03/national-affairs-the-political-prisoners-dilemma/ Accessed 23 November 2014Levenstein, M. and Suslow, V., 2006. What Determines Cartel Success? Journal of sparing Literature online, 44 (1), 4395.Parkin, M., Powell, M., and Matthews, K., 2012. Essential Economics. European Edition. United country Pearson Education Limited.Perloff, J., 2012. Microeconomics. 6th Edition. Un ited States Pearson Addison Wesley.Perloff, J., 2012. Figure 4.9 graph. United States Pearson Addison Wesley.Perloff, J., 2012. Figure 10.4 graph. United States Pearson Addison Wesley.Perloff, J., 2012. Figure 13.6 graph. United States Pearson Addison Wesley.Read, D., 2007. Experienced utility Utility theory from Jeremy Bentham to Daniel Kahneman.Thinking think online, 13 (1), 4561.Ridley, M., 1996. The Origins of Virtue Human Instincts and the Evolution of Cooperation. London. Penguin Books.Savage, L., 1954. The Foundations of Statistics. New York WileySmith, A., 1776. An examination into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. London Methuen.Steiner, P. and Schelling, T., 1961. The Strategy of Conflict.Economica, 28 (109).Stigler, George., 1964. A Theory of Oligopoly. Journal of Political Economy, 72(1) 4461.Sugden, R., 1991. Rational Choice A slew of Contributions from Economics and Philosophy.The Economic Journal, 101 (407).Tucker, A., and Kuhn, H., 1952. Contribution s to the Theory of Games. Econometrica, 20 (1).Tullock, G., 1985. Adam Smith and the Prisoners Dilemma. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 100.